- Monitors
with less horizontal lines degrade spatial resolution
3. Propagating
Speed/Path Artifacts
1) Refraction Artifact (= Lateral misregistration) [★★★★]
- bending of sound beam due to
different media propagation speeds
- ex) while imaging a cyst: shadowing posterior to each lateral border of cyst
- Causes of Refraction
1. Oblique incidence
2. Difference
in propagating speed on either side of the boundary
Snell’s law: sinθt/sinθi = Vt/Vi
- angle of sound
transmission at an interface between media with different P.S.
- Propagating
Speed (c) through the 2nd medium > 1st medium
→
Transmission angle > Incident angle
- Propagating
Speed (c) through the 2nd medium < 1st medium
→
Transmission angle < Incident angle
- Hindrance
: Duplication of a reflector /
shows a false structure
: Reflector misplacement
- Prevention
: Change angle, artifact
shouldn’t be in same place
2) Multipath Artifacts [★]
- Artifact created when the pulse is redirected along
different paths before returning to the transducer
- The transmit and returning path are not the same
- Causes: Scattering
: Random redirection of sound in
many directions
: Occurs with rough surfaces
: Occurs when tissue interface is
small compared to the beam
: Boundary is less or equal to
the wavelength of incident beam
: independent of the direction of
the incident sound
- Hindrance
: Subtle, nonspecific changes
that cannot be identified on an image
: may cause abnormalities of
depth or position of a structure
: result in both axial and lateral displacement of reflector
3) Mirror Image
Artifact
- a second copy of a true object incorrectly appears on the
opposite side of a strong reflector
- Observed in all imaging mode
[★]
- Characteristics
: Replica of true reflector
: Artifact will appear deeper
than true reflector
: “Mirror” is in straight line
between artifact and true reflector
: Artifact and true reflector are
equidistant from mirror
- Cause
: sound reflects off of a strong
reflector and is redirected towards another structure.
Creating a mirror image of the
structure on the opposite side of the strong reflector
-
: Ultrasound will show true
object in correct position (arrow showing mass on liver)
: also show a mirror image of the
object (hyperechoic duplicate mass below diaphragm in image)
: Artifact will be deeper and
behind the strong reflector (curved line-diaphragm)
- same path as
true object
: Artifact will be same distance
from strong reflector as true object
- Hindrance
: could mistake mirror image for
second object
: unable to correctly view area
behind high reflector
- Prevention
: Change angle of incidence to
vary reflectivity of interface
: Adjust focal zone or TGC at
level of high reflector causing mirroring to minimize reflectivity
: Scan from multiple windows
: Use spatial compounding
(combining
image information from different angles to produce a single image)
4) Comet Tail/Ringdown Artifact [★★]
- Due to merging of two closely spaced reverberations
- Similar to a
reverberation without the spacing
- Associated with
resonance of a gas bubble
- Causes
: Two closely placed strong
reflectors parallel to beam axis
: Sound wave bounces between the
two reflectors eventually returning to the Transducer
: Most common in mediums with
very high propagating speeds
- Solid hyperechoic line directed inferiorly
: Unable to differentiate between
individual reverberations
: Appears posterior to actual
structure
: Parallel to beams axis
- Hindrance
: False reflectors are displayed
: May obscure visualization of
structures posterior to reflectors
- Prevention
: Use an alternative window
- Change beam
angle
: Decrease TGC in the near gain
5) Reverberation Artifact [★★]
-
- Multiple
equidistant horizontal bands having decreased brightness with depth
: Only the first two are real
- Resulting in a single structure being displayed repeatedly
at greater depths
- Causes
: Two strong reflectors parallel
to wave axis
: Sound waves bounce between the
two reflectors eventually returning to the Transducer
- Creating a
longer go return-time
- Causing
incorrect reflector placement on display
- Repeated hyperechoic reflections
: Equal increments of space
between artifacts
: “Ladder” or “Venetian blind”
appearance
- Hindrance
: False reflectors are displayed
: May obscure visualization of
structures posterior to reflectors
- Prevention
: Use an alternative window
- Change beam
angle
: Decrease TGC in the near gain.
* Water-path scanner
- Advantage of
water-path scanner
: near-field
reverberations are reduced
- Disadvantage of
water-path scanner
: bubbles in the fluid can inhibit sound transmission into the
body
6) Propagating Speed
Error Artifact/Range Error (= Axial misregistration)
[★★]
- Created when sound propagates through medium at a rate
other than 1540m/s
- Displays the correct number of reflectors at incorrect
depths
: Causing misplaced echoes on
image
- Causes
: Error in tissue
velocity/velocity calibration of system
: Sound traveling at a speed
other than 1540 m/s
- Slower than
1540 m/s (ex: large mass composed
primarily of fat)
: Longer go
return time than machine expects
: Pulses
return slowly
: System
places reflections at a greater depth (overestimates distance)
- Faster than
1540 m/s
: Shorter go
return time than machine expects
: Pulses
return very quickly
: System places
reflectors at a shallower depth (underestimates distance)
- Displaces true reflections
- Helpful
: Conveys important information
on the image
- Can provide
tissue texture
- Hindrance
: Inaccurate placement may appear
like pathology
- Need to look
at in other views to confirm anatomy
- Prevention
: Currently cannot be prevented
: Use alternate viewing window
- Change beam
angle
7) Focal Banding/Focal
Enhancement Artifact
-
- Special form of enhancement
: side to side region of an image
appears brighter (hyperechoic) than tissues at other depths
- Occurs in the focal region of the transducer when using
multiple focal zones
- Cause
: increased intensity due to
multiple foci
- Structures at the focus appear brighter than those at
other depths
: An entire horizontal region
(band) of tissue appears hyperechoic
- Results from increased intensity at the focus
: same
appearance as incorrect TGC setting
- Hindrance
: The brightening of echoes around
the focus (intensity increased by narrowing of the beam)
: Higher intensity causes a
hyperechoic horizontal band across the display
→ can be
mistaken for a mass
- Prevention
: Decrease the number of foci
: Change the location of multiple
foci
4. Attenuation
Artifacts
1) Shadowing Artifacts [★]
-
- The weakening of echoes distal to a strongly attenuating
or reflecting structure [★★]
Or from the edges of a refracting
structure
- Causes: result of too much attenuation
: A strongly attenuating or
reflecting structure weakens the sound distal to it (attenuation)
→ echoes from the distal region
are weak and appear less echogenic (like a shadow)
- Hypoechoic/Anechoic area parallel to sound beam
- Hindrance
: May hide or prevent
visualization of a deeper structure
: difficult to obtain information
about objects in the far field or within the shadow artifact
: Prevents visualization of true
anatomy on the scan, resulting in missed information
- Helpful
: May provide valuable diagnostic
information
- helps to
characterize tissue
- ex) calcified plaques,
stiff breast lesions, and stones
- Prevention
: Image structure in several
angles to avoid missing information
: use tissue
harmonic imaging (which produces thinner beam reducing slice thickness)
[#1]
- Shadowing may not
be displayed if beam width is greater than calcification
: due to volume averaging
: To display acoustic shadow
→ beam width ↓
(frequency ↑ and/or improve focusing)
2) Enhancement Artifacts [★★★]
-
- The strengthening of echoes from reflections that lie
behind a weakly attenuating structure
- A hyperechoic
region that extends beneath structures with abnormally low attenuation
- Opposite of shadowing
- Causes
: Decreased attenuation through a fluid-filled structure
: Tissues with low attenuation (ex:
hematomas and abscesses)
- Helpful
: Provide valuable diagnostic
information helping to characterize tissue
- Hinder
: Cause blockage and prevent from
seeing something important
- Prevention
: Reduced with spatial
compounding
: Several directional approaches
allow the beam to get around the attenuating structure
5. Doppler
Artifacts
1) Aliasing [★★]
- High velocities appear negative
- With PW doppler,
high velocity measurements are inaccurate
: if the pulsed doppler sampling rate (PRF) is too low in comparison
to messed doppler shift
- Appearance of Doppler spectral information on the wrong
side of the baseline
- Most common Doppler artifact
: Only occurs with PW
- Very high velocities in one direction are incorrectly
displayed as going the opposite direction
- Causes
: occurs
because frequency-shifted signal is sampled
(rather
than recorded continuously)
:
inadequately sampled shift results in aliasing
: when the Nyquist limit is surpassed
- Nyquist limit (kHz)
= PRF/2 [★★]
: sampling
frequency needed for detecting the doppler signal unambiguously
: when PRF cannot be increased to a level greater than 2 times doppler
frequency
- Nyquist frequency: The doppler frequency at which aliasing
occurs
- Peaks will be displayed on the wrong side of the baseline
- Hindrance
: Yields an incorrect direction
and value
: Limited ability to correctly
measure deep vessels
- Prevention
: Increase the
PRF (and Nyquist frequency),
which will lower the baseline
-
can measure high velocities
-
increased PRF may introduce range ambiguity
: zero baseline shift
: Increase the Doppler angle
: Use a lower operating
frequency, which lowers the Doppler shift and shrink the spectrum
: Use a continuous wave device
-
Aliasing does
not occur in CW doppler [★★]
:
no limit in maximum velocity
2) Ghosting
- Form of noise
- The presence of false echo signals coming from outside the
main beam
- Causes
: Low frequency Doppler shifts created by slowly moving anatomy
: Slow velocity reflectors
: Need to differentiate between
anatomy and moving blood cells
- ex: heart muscle, pulsating vessel walls
- Hindrance
: Gives operator false diagnosis
or measurement information
: Could interpret as slow-moving
blood cells
- Prevention [★★★]
: Use a wall filter to
eliminate low
frequency Doppler shifts
: Increase
PRF – range ambiguity, less sensitivity to slow flow, reduction of color fill
* Slow flow [★★]
No color signal detected within
portal vein
|
- color doppler system must be sensitized to detect low
frequency shifts
: slow flow produces low
frequency shifts
- set PRF lower to increase
sensitivity to low frequency shifts
- increasing color doppler transmit
frequency
: result in larger frequency
shifts from slow flow
- improve
visibility and sensitivity to slow flow
: decreased penetration to flow
in vessels deep within tissues
- Lower the wall filter setting
3) Cross talk (spectral mirroring) [★]
-
- Identical Doppler spectrum is shown above and below the
baseline
- True flow pattern is unidirectional, but flow pattern
appears bidirectional on spectrum
: Spectral
Doppler appears on both top and bottom
- Causes
: Equipment malfunction (poorly
designed)
: Doppler gain is set too high
: Incident
angle is near 90 degrees (between sound beam and flow direction)
- Doppler
shifts cannot be obtained perpendicular to the beam
: Operator error
- Hindrance
: Spectral analysis is giving a
false information
- Prevention
: Change
angle of the transducer
: Apply gel (coupling medium)
: Fix Doppler gain
4) Twinkle artifact
- Phenomenon with unclear underlying causes that appears as
a rapid alternation of color
- Immediately behind a stationary echogenic object, giving
it a false appearance of movement
- Hindrance
: False appearance of movement
- Helpful
: Useful in detection of certain
clinical conditions
- Ex:
Urolithiasis (twinkle sign → positive reading that a stone is present)
: Can enhance accuracy and
sensitivity
- Prevention
: Not having very strong scatters
: Eliminating the phase detection
process
: Unfortunately, the operator has
no control over these things
5) Flash artifact
- high-amplitude, low-frequency shift signal
- reduced by increasing wall filter
:
reduces sensitivity to low frequency shifts ass/w slow flow
Reference
* Davies Ultrasound Physics review
* https://sites.google.com/site/lindadmsportfolio/ultrasound-physics/
*
https://sites.google.com/site/nataljasultrasoundphysics/
* https://sites.google.com/site/ektasphysicseportfolio/doppler